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<p>Coming back to our local repo which has two commits. So far, what we have is a single line of history. Commits are chained in a single line. But sometimes you may have a need to work on two different features in parallel in the same repo. Now one option here could be making a new folder/repo with the same code and use that for another feature development. But there's a better way. Use <em>branches.</em> Since git follows tree like structure for commits, we can use branches to work on different sets of features. From a commit, two or more branches can be created and branches can also be merged.</p>
<p>Using branches, there can exist multiple lines of histories and we can checkout to any of them and work on it. Checking out, as we discussed earlier, would simply mean replacing contents of the directory (repo) with the snapshot at the checked out version.</p>
<p>Let's create a branch and see how it looks like:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git branch b1
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git branch b1
$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master, b1<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; master, b1) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>We create a branch called <code>b1</code>. Git log tells us that b1 also points to the last commit (7f3b00e) but the <code>HEAD</code> is still pointing to master. If you remember, HEAD points to the commit/reference wherever you are checkout to. So if we checkout to <code>b1</code>, HEAD should point to that. Let's confirm:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git checkout b1
Switched to branch <span class="s1">&#39;b1&#39;</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git checkout b1
Switched to branch 'b1'
$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; b1, master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; b1, master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p><code>b1</code> still points to the same commit but HEAD now points to <code>b1</code>. Since we create a branch at commit <code>7f3b00e</code>, there will be two lines of histories starting this commit. Depending on which branch you are checked out on, the line of history will progress.</p>
<p>At this moment, we are checked out on branch <code>b1</code>, so making a new commit will advance branch reference <code>b1</code> to that commit and current <code>b1</code> commit will become its parent. Let's do that.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># Creating a file and making a commit</span>
$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I am a file in b1 branch&quot;</span> &gt; b1.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash"># Creating a file and making a commit
$ echo &quot;I am a file in b1 branch&quot; &gt; b1.txt
$ git add b1.txt
$ git commit -m <span class="s2">&quot;adding b1 file&quot;</span>
<span class="o">[</span>b1 872a38f<span class="o">]</span> adding b1 file
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> b1.txt
$ git commit -m &quot;adding b1 file&quot;
[b1 872a38f] adding b1 file
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 b1.txt
<span class="c1"># The new line of history</span>
# The new line of history
$ git log --oneline --graph
* 872a38f <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
* 872a38f (HEAD -&gt; b1) adding b1 file
* 7f3b00e (master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
$
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>Do note that master is still pointing to the old commit it was pointing to. We can now checkout to master branch and make commits there. This will result in another line of history starting from commit 7f3b00e.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># checkout to master branch</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash"># checkout to master branch
$ git checkout master
Switched to branch <span class="s1">&#39;master&#39;</span>
Switched to branch 'master'
<span class="c1"># Creating a new commit on master branch</span>
$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;new file in master branch&quot;</span> &gt; master.txt
# Creating a new commit on master branch
$ echo &quot;new file in master branch&quot; &gt; master.txt
$ git add master.txt
$ git commit -m <span class="s2">&quot;adding master.txt file&quot;</span>
<span class="o">[</span>master 60dc441<span class="o">]</span> adding master.txt file
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> master.txt
$ git commit -m &quot;adding master.txt file&quot;
[master 60dc441] adding master.txt file
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 master.txt
<span class="c1"># The history line</span>
# The history line
$ git log --oneline --graph
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 60dc441 (HEAD -&gt; master) adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>Notice how branch b1 is not visible here since we are on the master. Let's try to visualize both to get the whole picture:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
<span class="p">|</span> * 872a38f <span class="o">(</span>b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
<span class="p">|</span>/
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 60dc441 (HEAD -&gt; master) adding master.txt file
| * 872a38f (b1) adding b1 file
|/
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>Above tree structure should make things clear. Notice a clear branch/fork on commit 7f3b00e. This is how we create branches. Now they both are two separate lines of history on which feature development can be done independently.</p>
<p><strong>To reiterate, internally, git is just a tree of commits. Branch names (human readable) are pointers to those commits in the tree. We use various git commands to work with the tree structure and references. Git accordingly modifies contents of our repo.</strong></p>
<h2 id="merges">Merges</h2>
<p>Now say the feature you were working on branch <code>b1</code> is complete and you need to merge it on master branch, where all the final version of code goes. So first you will checkout to branch master and then you pull the latest code from upstream (eg: GitHub). Then you need to merge your code from <code>b1</code> into master. There could be two ways this can be done.</p>
<p>Here is the current history:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
<span class="p">|</span> * 872a38f <span class="o">(</span>b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
<span class="p">|</span>/
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 60dc441 (HEAD -&gt; master) adding master.txt file
| * 872a38f (b1) adding b1 file
|/
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p><strong>Option 1: Directly merge the branch.</strong> Merging the branch b1 into master will result in a new merge commit. This will merge changes from two different lines of history and create a new commit of the result.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git merge b1
Merge made by the <span class="s1">&#39;recursive&#39;</span> strategy.
b1.txt <span class="p">|</span> <span class="m">1</span> +
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> b1.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git merge b1
Merge made by the 'recursive' strategy.
b1.txt | 1 +
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 b1.txt
$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 8fc28f9 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> Merge branch <span class="s1">&#39;b1&#39;</span>
<span class="p">|</span><span class="se">\</span>
<span class="p">|</span> * 872a38f <span class="o">(</span>b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
* <span class="p">|</span> 60dc441 adding master.txt file
<span class="p">|</span>/
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 8fc28f9 (HEAD -&gt; master) Merge branch 'b1'
|\
| * 872a38f (b1) adding b1 file
* | 60dc441 adding master.txt file
|/
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>You can see a new merge commit created (8fc28f9). You will be prompted for the commit message. If there are a lot of branches in the repo, this result will end-up with a lot of merge commits. Which looks ugly compared to a single line of history of development. So let's look at an alternative approach</p>
<p>First let's <a href="https://git-scm.com/docs/git-reset">reset</a> our last merge and go to the previous state.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git reset --hard 60dc441
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git reset --hard 60dc441
HEAD is now at 60dc441 adding master.txt file
$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
<span class="p">|</span> * 872a38f <span class="o">(</span>b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
<span class="p">|</span>/
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 60dc441 (HEAD -&gt; master) adding master.txt file
| * 872a38f (b1) adding b1 file
|/
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p><strong>Option 2: Rebase.</strong> Now, instead of merging two branches which has a similar base (commit: 7f3b00e), let us rebase branch b1 on to current master. <strong>What this means is take branch <code>b1</code> (from commit 7f3b00e to commit 872a38f) and rebase (put them on top of) master (60dc441).</strong></p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># Switch to b1</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash"># Switch to b1
$ git checkout b1
Switched to branch <span class="s1">&#39;b1&#39;</span>
Switched to branch 'b1'
<span class="c1"># Rebase (b1 which is current branch) on master</span>
# Rebase (b1 which is current branch) on master
$ git rebase master
First, rewinding head to replay your work on top of it...
Applying: adding b1 file
<span class="c1"># The result</span>
# The result
$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 5372c8f <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 5372c8f (HEAD -&gt; b1) adding b1 file
* 60dc441 (master) adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>You can see <code>b1</code> which had 1 commit. That commit's parent was <code>7f3b00e</code>. But since we rebase it on master (<code>60dc441</code>). That becomes the parent now. As a side effect, you also see it has become a single line of history. Now if we were to merge <code>b1</code> into <code>master</code>, it would simply mean change <code>master</code> to point to <code>5372c8f</code> which is <code>b1</code>. Let's try it:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># checkout to master since we want to merge code into master</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash"># checkout to master since we want to merge code into master
$ git checkout master
Switched to branch <span class="s1">&#39;master&#39;</span>
Switched to branch 'master'
<span class="c1"># the current history, where b1 is based on master</span>
# the current history, where b1 is based on master
$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 5372c8f <span class="o">(</span>b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
* 60dc441 <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
* 5372c8f (b1) adding b1 file
* 60dc441 (HEAD -&gt; master) adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
<span class="c1"># Performing the merge, notice the &quot;fast-forward&quot; message</span>
# Performing the merge, notice the &quot;fast-forward&quot; message
$ git merge b1
Updating 60dc441..5372c8f
Fast-forward
b1.txt <span class="p">|</span> <span class="m">1</span> +
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> b1.txt
b1.txt | 1 +
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 b1.txt
<span class="c1"># The Result</span>
# The Result
$ git log --oneline --graph --all
* 5372c8f <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master, b1<span class="o">)</span> adding b1 file
* 5372c8f (HEAD -&gt; master, b1) adding b1 file
* 60dc441 adding master.txt file
* 7f3b00e adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 7f3b00e adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>Now you see both <code>b1</code> and <code>master</code> are pointing to the same commit. Your code has been merged to the master branch and it can be pushed. Also we have clean line of history! :D</p>

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<p>Though you might be aware already, let's revisit why we need a version control system. As the project grows and multiple developers start working on it, an efficient method for collaboration is warranted. Git helps the team collaborate easily and also maintains the history of the changes happening with the codebase.</p>
<h3 id="creating-a-git-repo">Creating a Git Repo</h3>
<p>Any folder can be converted into a git repository. After executing the following command, we will see a <code>.git</code> folder within the folder, which makes our folder a git repository. <strong>All the magic that git does, <code>.git</code> folder is the enabler for the same.</strong></p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># creating an empty folder and changing current dir to it</span>
$ <span class="nb">cd</span> /tmp
<pre><code class="language-bash"># creating an empty folder and changing current dir to it
$ cd /tmp
$ mkdir school-of-sre
$ <span class="nb">cd</span> school-of-sre/
$ cd school-of-sre/
<span class="c1"># initialize a git repo</span>
# initialize a git repo
$ git init
Initialized empty Git repository <span class="k">in</span> /private/tmp/school-of-sre/.git/
</code></pre></div>
Initialized empty Git repository in /private/tmp/school-of-sre/.git/
</code></pre>
<p>As the output says, an empty git repo has been initialized in our folder. Let's take a look at what is there.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ ls .git/
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ ls .git/
HEAD config description hooks info objects refs
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>There are a bunch of folders and files in the <code>.git</code> folder. As I said, all these enables git to do its magic. We will look into some of these folders and files. But for now, what we have is an empty git repository.</p>
<h3 id="tracking-a-file">Tracking a File</h3>
<p>Now as you might already know, let us create a new file in our repo (we will refer to the folder as <em>repo</em> now.) And see git status</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I am file 1&quot;</span> &gt; file1.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ echo &quot;I am file 1&quot; &gt; file1.txt
$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Untracked files:
<span class="o">(</span>use <span class="s2">&quot;git add &lt;file&gt;...&quot;</span> to include <span class="k">in</span> what will be committed<span class="o">)</span>
(use &quot;git add &lt;file&gt;...&quot; to include in what will be committed)
file1.txt
nothing added to commit but untracked files present <span class="o">(</span>use <span class="s2">&quot;git add&quot;</span> to track<span class="o">)</span>
</code></pre></div>
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use &quot;git add&quot; to track)
</code></pre>
<p>The current git status says <code>No commits yet</code> and there is one untracked file. Since we just created the file, git is not tracking that file. We explicitly need to ask git to track files and folders. (also checkout <a href="https://git-scm.com/docs/gitignore">gitignore</a>) And how we do that is via <code>git add</code> command as suggested in the above output. Then we go ahead and create a commit.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git add file1.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git add file1.txt
$ git status
On branch master
No commits yet
Changes to be committed:
<span class="o">(</span>use <span class="s2">&quot;git rm --cached &lt;file&gt;...&quot;</span> to unstage<span class="o">)</span>
(use &quot;git rm --cached &lt;file&gt;...&quot; to unstage)
new file: file1.txt
$ git commit -m <span class="s2">&quot;adding file 1&quot;</span>
<span class="o">[</span>master <span class="o">(</span>root-commit<span class="o">)</span> df2fb7a<span class="o">]</span> adding file <span class="m">1</span>
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> file1.txt
</code></pre></div>
$ git commit -m &quot;adding file 1&quot;
[master (root-commit) df2fb7a] adding file 1
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 file1.txt
</code></pre>
<p>Notice how after adding the file, git status says <code>Changes to be committed:</code>. What it means is whatever is listed there, will be included in the next commit. Then we go ahead and create a commit, with an attached messaged via <code>-m</code>.</p>
<h3 id="more-about-a-commit">More About a Commit</h3>
<p>Commit is a snapshot of the repo. Whenever a commit is made, a snapshot of the current state of repo (the folder) is taken and saved. Each commit has a unique ID. (<code>df2fb7a</code> for the commit we made in the previous step). As we keep adding/changing more and more contents and keep making commits, all those snapshots are stored by git. Again, all this magic happens inside the <code>.git</code> folder. This is where all this snapshot or versions are stored <em>in an efficient manner.</em></p>
<h3 id="adding-more-changes">Adding More Changes</h3>
<p>Let us create one more file and commit the change. It would look the same as the previous commit we made.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;I am file 2&quot;</span> &gt; file2.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ echo &quot;I am file 2&quot; &gt; file2.txt
$ git add file2.txt
$ git commit -m <span class="s2">&quot;adding file 2&quot;</span>
<span class="o">[</span>master 7f3b00e<span class="o">]</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> file2.txt
</code></pre></div>
$ git commit -m &quot;adding file 2&quot;
[master 7f3b00e] adding file 2
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 file2.txt
</code></pre>
<p>A new commit with ID <code>7f3b00e</code> has been created. You can issue <code>git status</code> at any time to see the state of the repository.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code> **IMPORTANT: Note that commit IDs are long string (SHA) but we can refer to a commit by its initial few (8 or more) characters too. We will interchangeably using shorter and longer commit IDs.**
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code> **IMPORTANT: Note that commit IDs are long string (SHA) but we can refer to a commit by its initial few (8 or more) characters too. We will interchangeably using shorter and longer commit IDs.**
</code></pre>
<p>Now that we have two commits, let's visualize them:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p><code>git log</code>, as the name suggests, prints the log of all the git commits. Here you see two additional arguments, <code>--oneline</code> prints the shorter version of the log, ie: the commit message only and not the person who made the commit and when. <code>--graph</code> prints it in graph format.</p>
<p><strong>Now at this moment the commits might look like just one in each line but all commits are stored as a tree like data structure internally by git. That means there can be two or more children commits of a given commit. And not just a single line of commits. We will look more into this part when we get to the Branches section. For now this is our commit history:</strong></p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code> <span class="nv">df2fb7a</span> <span class="o">===</span>&gt; 7f3b00e
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash"> df2fb7a ===&gt; 7f3b00e
</code></pre>
<h3 id="are-commits-really-linked">Are commits really linked?</h3>
<p>As I just said, the two commits we just made are linked via tree like data structure and we saw how they are linked. But let's actually verify it. Everything in git is an object. Newly created files are stored as an object. Changes to file are stored as an objects and even commits are objects. To view contents of an object we can use the following command with the object's ID. We will take a look at the contents of the second commit</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git cat-file -p 7f3b00e
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git cat-file -p 7f3b00e
tree ebf3af44d253e5328340026e45a9fa9ae3ea1982
parent df2fb7a61f5d40c1191e0fdeb0fc5d6e7969685a
author Sanket Patel &lt;spatel1@linkedin.com&gt; <span class="m">1603273316</span> -0700
committer Sanket Patel &lt;spatel1@linkedin.com&gt; <span class="m">1603273316</span> -0700
author Sanket Patel &lt;spatel1@linkedin.com&gt; 1603273316 -0700
committer Sanket Patel &lt;spatel1@linkedin.com&gt; 1603273316 -0700
adding file <span class="m">2</span>
</code></pre></div>
adding file 2
</code></pre>
<p>Take a note of <code>parent</code> attribute in the above output. It points to the commit id of the first commit we made. So this proves that they are linked! Additionally you can see the second commit's message in this object. As I said all this magic is enabled by <code>.git</code> folder and the object to which we are looking at also is in that folder.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ ls .git/objects/7f/3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ ls .git/objects/7f/3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9
.git/objects/7f/3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>It is stored in <code>.git/objects/</code> folder. All the files and changes to them as well are stored in this folder.</p>
<h3 id="the-version-control-part-of-git">The Version Control part of Git</h3>
<p>We already can see two commits (versions) in our git log. One thing a version control tool gives you is ability to browse back and forth in history. For example: some of your users are running an old version of code and they are reporting an issue. In order to debug the issue, you need access to the old code. The one in your current repo is the latest code. In this example, you are working on the second commit (7f3b00e) and someone reported an issue with the code snapshot at commit (df2fb7a). This is how you would get access to the code at any older commit</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code><span class="c1"># Current contents, two files present</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash"># Current contents, two files present
$ ls
file1.txt file2.txt
<span class="c1"># checking out to (an older) commit</span>
# checking out to (an older) commit
$ git checkout df2fb7a
Note: checking out <span class="s1">&#39;df2fb7a&#39;</span>.
Note: checking out 'df2fb7a'.
You are <span class="k">in</span> <span class="s1">&#39;detached HEAD&#39;</span> state. You can look around, make experimental
changes and commit them, and you can discard any commits you make <span class="k">in</span> this
You are in 'detached HEAD' state. You can look around, make experimental
changes and commit them, and you can discard any commits you make in this
state without impacting any branches by performing another checkout.
If you want to create a new branch to retain commits you create, you may
<span class="k">do</span> so <span class="o">(</span>now or later<span class="o">)</span> by using -b with the checkout <span class="nb">command</span> again. Example:
do so (now or later) by using -b with the checkout command again. Example:
git checkout -b &lt;new-branch-name&gt;
HEAD is now at df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
HEAD is now at df2fb7a adding file 1
<span class="c1"># checking contents, can verify it has old contents</span>
# checking contents, can verify it has old contents
$ ls
file1.txt
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>So this is how we would get access to old versions/snapshots. All we need is a <em>reference</em> to that snapshot. Upon executing <code>git checkout ...</code>, what git does for you is use the <code>.git</code> folder, see what was the state of things (files and folders) at that version/reference and replace the contents of current directory with those contents. The then-existing content will no longer be present in the local dir (repo) but we can and will still get access to them because they are tracked via git commit and <code>.git</code> folder has them stored/tracked.</p>
<h3 id="reference">Reference</h3>
<p>I mention in the previous section that we need a <em>reference</em> to the version. By default, git repo is made of tree of commits. And each commit has a unique IDs. But the unique ID is not the only thing we can reference commits via. There are multiple ways to reference commits. For example: <code>HEAD</code> is a reference to current commit. <em>Whatever commit your repo is checked out at, <code>HEAD</code> will point to that.</em> <code>HEAD~1</code> is reference to previous commit. So while checking out previous version in section above, we could have done <code>git checkout HEAD~1</code>.</p>
<p>Similarly, master is also a reference (to a branch). Since git uses tree like structure to store commits, there of course will be branches. And the default branch is called <code>master</code>. Master (or any branch reference) will point to the latest commit in the branch. Even though we have checked out to the previous commit in out repo, <code>master</code> still points to the latest commit. And we can get back to the latest version by checkout at <code>master</code> reference</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git checkout master
Previous HEAD position was df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
Switched to branch <span class="s1">&#39;master&#39;</span>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git checkout master
Previous HEAD position was df2fb7a adding file 1
Switched to branch 'master'
<span class="c1"># now we will see latest code, with two files</span>
# now we will see latest code, with two files
$ ls
file1.txt file2.txt
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>Note, instead of <code>master</code> in above command, we could have used commit's ID as well.</p>
<h3 id="references-and-the-magic">References and The Magic</h3>
<p>Let's look at the state of things. Two commits, <code>master</code> and <code>HEAD</code> references are pointing to the latest commit</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>The magic? Let's examine these files:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ cat .git/refs/heads/master
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ cat .git/refs/heads/master
7f3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>Viola! Where master is pointing to is stored in a file. <strong>Whenever git needs to know where master reference is pointing to, or if git needs to update where master points, it just needs to update the file above.</strong> So when you create a new commit, a new commit is created on top of the current commit and the master file is updated with the new commit's ID.</p>
<p>Similary, for <code>HEAD</code> reference:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ cat .git/HEAD
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ cat .git/HEAD
ref: refs/heads/master
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>We can see <code>HEAD</code> is pointing to a reference called <code>refs/heads/master</code>. So <code>HEAD</code> will point where ever the <code>master</code> points.</p>
<h3 id="little-adventure">Little Adventure</h3>
<p>We discussed how git will update the files as we execute commands. But let's try to do it ourselves, by hand, and see what happens.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>Now let's change master to point to the previous/first commit.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> df2fb7a61f5d40c1191e0fdeb0fc5d6e7969685a &gt; .git/refs/heads/master
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ echo df2fb7a61f5d40c1191e0fdeb0fc5d6e7969685a &gt; .git/refs/heads/master
$ git log --oneline --graph
* df2fb7a <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">1</span>
* df2fb7a (HEAD -&gt; master) adding file 1
<span class="c1"># RESETTING TO ORIGINAL</span>
$ <span class="nb">echo</span> 7f3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9 &gt; .git/refs/heads/master
# RESETTING TO ORIGINAL
$ echo 7f3b00eaa957815884198e2fdfec29361108d6a9 &gt; .git/refs/heads/master
$ git log --oneline --graph
* 7f3b00e <span class="o">(</span>HEAD -&gt; master<span class="o">)</span> adding file <span class="m">2</span>
* df2fb7a adding file <span class="m">1</span>
</code></pre></div>
* 7f3b00e (HEAD -&gt; master) adding file 2
* df2fb7a adding file 1
</code></pre>
<p>We just edited the <code>master</code> reference file and now we can see only the first commit in git log. Undoing the change to the file brings the state back to original. Not so much of magic, is it?</p>

22
git/github-hooks/index.html
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@@ -1281,23 +1281,23 @@
</ul>
<h2 id="hooks">Hooks</h2>
<p>Git has another nice feature called hooks. Hooks are basically scripts which will be called when a certain event happens. Here is where hooks are located:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ ls .git/hooks/
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ ls .git/hooks/
applypatch-msg.sample fsmonitor-watchman.sample pre-applypatch.sample pre-push.sample pre-receive.sample update.sample
commit-msg.sample post-update.sample pre-commit.sample pre-rebase.sample prepare-commit-msg.sample
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>Names are self explanatory. These hooks are useful when you want to do certain things when a certain event happens. If you want to run tests before pushing code, you would want to setup <code>pre-push</code> hooks. Let's try to create a pre commit hook.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;echo this is from pre commit hook&quot;</span> &gt; .git/hooks/pre-commit
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ echo &quot;echo this is from pre commit hook&quot; &gt; .git/hooks/pre-commit
$ chmod +x .git/hooks/pre-commit
</code></pre></div>
</code></pre>
<p>We basically create a file called <code>pre-commit</code> in hooks folder and make it executable. Now if we make a commit, we should see the message getting printed.</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="s2">&quot;sample file&quot;</span> &gt; sample.txt
<pre><code class="language-bash">$ echo &quot;sample file&quot; &gt; sample.txt
$ git add sample.txt
$ git commit -m <span class="s2">&quot;adding sample file&quot;</span>
this is from pre commit hook <span class="c1"># &lt;===== THE MESSAGE FROM HOOK EXECUTION</span>
<span class="o">[</span>master 9894e05<span class="o">]</span> adding sample file
<span class="m">1</span> file changed, <span class="m">1</span> insertion<span class="o">(</span>+<span class="o">)</span>
create mode <span class="m">100644</span> sample.txt
</code></pre></div>
$ git commit -m &quot;adding sample file&quot;
this is from pre commit hook # &lt;===== THE MESSAGE FROM HOOK EXECUTION
[master 9894e05] adding sample file
1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
create mode 100644 sample.txt
</code></pre>