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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--active md-nav__item--section md-nav__item--nested">
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checked
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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
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<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
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Fundamentals Series
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<!-- Nested navigation item -->
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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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type="checkbox"
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/>
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<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Linux Basics
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<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
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/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
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<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_2_1_3">
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Linux Networking
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<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../linux_networking/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
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Introduction
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<a href="../../linux_networking/dns/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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DNS
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<a href="../../linux_networking/udp/" class="md-nav__link">
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<a href="../../linux_networking/http/" class="md-nav__link">
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<a href="../../linux_networking/tcp/" class="md-nav__link">
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<a href="../../linux_networking/ipr/" class="md-nav__link">
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<a href="../../linux_networking/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_2"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
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data-md-level="2"
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aria-expanded="false"
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<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_2_2">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Python and Web
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<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../python_web/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../python_web/python-concepts/" class="md-nav__link">
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../python_web/python-web-flask/" class="md-nav__link">
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../python_web/url-shorten-app/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../python_web/sre-conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
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<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
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<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_3"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_2_3"
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tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_2_3_label"
aria-expanded="false"
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<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_2_3">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Data
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
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<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_3_1"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_2_3_1"
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tabindex="0"
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_3_3"
/>
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<a href="../../messagequeue/key_concepts/" class="md-nav__link">
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Key Concepts
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<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
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<input
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type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_3_4"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
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Big Data
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Big Data
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Introduction
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<input
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type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_4"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
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for="__nav_2_4"
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Systems Design
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<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--active md-nav__item--nested">
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<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_5"
checked
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
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for="__nav_2_5"
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tabindex="0"
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<input
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type="checkbox"
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<a
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<!-- Navigation link icon -->
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Introduction
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Table of contents
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<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-component="toc" data-md-scrollfix>
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What to expect from this course
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What is not covered in this course
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#introduction" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
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<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Introduction">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
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<a href="#four-golden-signals-of-monitoring" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Four golden signals of monitoring
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#why-is-monitoring-important" class="md-nav__link">
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Why is monitoring important?
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../command-line_tools/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Command-line Tools
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../third-party_monitoring/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Third-party Monitoring
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../alerts/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Proactive Monitoring with Alerts
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../best_practices/" class="md-nav__link">
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<span class="md-ellipsis">
Best Practices for Monitoring
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../observability/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Observability
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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</ul>
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<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
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<!-- Currently active page -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
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<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_2_6"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_2_6"
id="__nav_2_6_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Security
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_2_6_label"
aria-expanded="false"
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<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_2_6">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Security
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/fundamentals/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Fundamentals of Security
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/network_security/" class="md-nav__link">
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<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Network Security
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/threats_attacks_defences/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
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Threat, Attacks & Defences
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/writing_secure_code/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Writing Secure code
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../security/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
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<!-- Navigation link status -->
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</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
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<!-- Currently active page -->
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</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
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<!-- Currently active page -->
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<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--section md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3"
id="__nav_3_label"
tabindex=""
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Level 102
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="1"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Level 102
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_1"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_1"
id="__nav_3_1_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Linux Intermediate
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_1_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_1">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Linux Intermediate
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/introduction/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/package_management/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Package Management
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/storage_media/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Storage Media
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/archiving_backup/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Archiving and Backup
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/introvim/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction to Vim
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/bashscripting/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Bash Scripting
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/linux_intermediate/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_2"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_2"
id="__nav_3_2_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Linux Advanced
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_2_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_2">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Linux Advanced
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_2_1"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_2_1"
id="__nav_3_2_1_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Containerization And Orchestration
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="3"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_2_1_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_2_1">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Containerization And Orchestration
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/containerization_and_orchestration/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/containerization_and_orchestration/intro_to_containers/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction To Containers
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/containerization_and_orchestration/containerization_with_docker/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Containerization With Docker
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/containerization_and_orchestration/orchestration_with_kubernetes/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Orchestration With Kubernetes
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/containerization_and_orchestration/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_2_2"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_2_2"
id="__nav_3_2_2_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
System Calls and Signals
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="3"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_2_2_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_2_2">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
System Calls and Signals
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_calls_and_signals/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_calls_and_signals/signals/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Signals
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_calls_and_signals/system_calls/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
System Calls
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_calls_and_signals/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_3"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_3"
id="__nav_3_3_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Networking
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_3_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_3">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Networking
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/introduction/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/security/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Security
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/scale/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Scale
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/rtt/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
RTT
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/infrastructure-features/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Infrastructure Services
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/networking/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_4"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_4"
id="__nav_3_4_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
System Design
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_4_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_4">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
System Design
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/intro/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/large-system-design/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Large System Design
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/scaling/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Scaling
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/scaling-beyond-the-datacenter/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Scaling Beyond the Data Center
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/resiliency/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Resiliency
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_design/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_5"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_5"
id="__nav_3_5_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
System Troubleshooting and Performance Improvements
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_5_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_5">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
System Troubleshooting and Performance Improvements
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/introduction/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/troubleshooting/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Troubleshooting
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/important-tools/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Important Tools
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/performance-improvements/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Performance Improvements
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/troubleshooting-example/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Troubleshooting Example
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/system_troubleshooting_and_performance/conclusion/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conclusion
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<!-- Pruned navigation item -->
</li>
<!-- Currently active page -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<!-- Determine all nested items that are index pages -->
<!-- Navigation tabs -->
<!-- Render 1st level items with nested items as sections -->
<!-- Navigation pruning -->
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<li class="md-nav__item md-nav__item--nested">
<!-- Determine checked and indeterminate state -->
<!-- Active checkbox expands items contained within nested section -->
<input
class="md-nav__toggle md-toggle "
type="checkbox"
id="__nav_3_6"
/>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items -->
<label
class="md-nav__link"
for="__nav_3_6"
id="__nav_3_6_label"
tabindex="0"
>
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
</label>
<!-- Toggle to expand nested items with link to index page -->
<!-- Nested navigation -->
<nav
class="md-nav"
data-md-level="2"
aria-labelledby="__nav_3_6_label"
aria-expanded="false"
>
<label class="md-nav__title" for="__nav_3_6">
<span class="md-nav__icon md-icon"></span>
Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery
</label>
<ul class="md-nav__list" data-md-scrollfix>
<!-- Nested navigation item -->
<!-- Determine classes -->
<!-- Determine active page for paginated views -->
<!-- Navigation item with nested items -->
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="../../../level102/continuous_integration_and_continuous_delivery/introduction/" class="md-nav__link">
<!-- Navigation link icon -->
<!-- Navigation link title -->
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Introduction
</span>
<!-- Navigation link status -->
</a>
</li>
<!-- Determine classes -->
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<h2 id="_1"></h2>
<h1 id="prerequisites">Prerequisites</h1>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/linux_basics/intro/">Linux Basics</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/python_web/intro/">Python and the Web</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/systems_design/intro/">Systems Design</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/linux_networking/intro/">Linux Networking Fundamentals</a></p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="what-to-expect-from-this-course">What to expect from this course</h2>
<p>Monitoring is an integral part of any system. As an SRE, you need to
have a basic understanding of monitoring a service infrastructure. By
the end of this course, you will gain a better understanding of the
following topics:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>What is monitoring?</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>What needs to be measured</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>How the metrics gathered can be used to improve business decisions and overall reliability</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Proactive monitoring with alerts</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Log processing and its importance</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>What is observability?</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Distributed tracing</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Logs</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Metrics</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="what-is-not-covered-in-this-course">What is not covered in this course</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Guide to setting up a monitoring infrastructure</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Deep dive into different monitoring technologies and benchmarking or comparison of any tools</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 id="course-content">Course content</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/introduction/#introduction">Introduction</a></p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/introduction/#four-golden-signals-of-monitoring">Four golden signals of monitoring</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/introduction/#why-is-monitoring-important">Why is monitoring important?</a></p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/command-line_tools/">Command-line tools</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/third-party_monitoring/">Third-party monitoring</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/alerts/">Proactive monitoring using alerts</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/best_practices/">Best practices for monitoring</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/observability/">Observability</a></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/observability/#logs">Logs</a></li>
<li><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/bservability/#tracing">Tracing</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/conclusion/">Conclusion</a></p>
<h2 id="_2"></h2>
<h1 id="introduction">Introduction</h1>
<p>Monitoring is a process of collecting real-time performance metrics from
a system, analyzing the data to derive meaningful information, and
displaying the data to the users. In simple terms, you measure various
metrics regularly to understand the state of the system, including but
not limited to, user requests, latency, and error rate. <em>What gets
measured, gets fixed</em>&mdash;if you can measure something, you can reason
about it, understand it, discuss it, and act upon it with confidence.</p>
<h2 id="four-golden-signals-of-monitoring">Four golden signals of monitoring</h2>
<p>When setting up monitoring for a system, you need to decide what to
measure. The four golden signals of monitoring provide a good
understanding of service performance and lay a foundation for monitoring
a system. These four golden signals are</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Traffic</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Latency</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Error</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Saturation</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>These metrics help you to understand the system performance and
bottlenecks, and to create a better end-user experience. As discussed in
the <a href="https://sre.google/sre-book/monitoring-distributed-systems/">Google SRE
book</a>,
if you can measure only four metrics of your service, focus on these
four. Let's look at each of the four golden signals.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Traffic</strong>&mdash;<em>Traffic</em> gives a better understanding of the service
demand. Often referred to as <em>service QPS</em> (queries per second),
traffic is a measure of requests served by the service. This
signal helps you to decide when a service needs to be scaled up to
handle increasing customer demand and scaled down to be
cost-effective.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Latency</strong>&mdash;<em>Latency</em> is the measure of time taken by the service
to process the incoming request and send the response. Measuring
service latency helps in the early detection of slow degradation
of the service. Distinguishing between the latency of successful
requests and the latency of failed requests is important. For
example, an <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Status#server_error_responses">HTTP 5XX
error</a>
triggered due to loss of connection to a database or other
critical backend might be served very quickly. However, because an
HTTP 500 error indicates a failed request, factoring 500s into
overall latency might result in misleading calculations.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Error (rate)</strong>&mdash;<em>Error</em> is the measure of failed client
requests. These failures can be easily identified based on the
response codes (<a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Status#server_error_responses">HTTP 5XX
error</a>).
There might be cases where the response is considered erroneous
due to wrong result data or due to policy violations. For example,
you might get an <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Status/200">HTTP
200</a>
response, but the body has incomplete data, or response time is
breaching the agreed-upon
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-level_agreement">SLA</a>s.
Therefore, you need to have other mechanisms (code logic or
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_(computer_programming)">instrumentation</a>)
in place to capture errors in addition to the response codes.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Saturation</strong>&mdash;<em>Saturation</em> is a measure of the resource
utilization by a service. This signal tells you the state of
service resources and how full they are. These resources include
memory, compute, network I/O, and so on. Service performance
slowly degrades even before resource utilization is at 100
percent. Therefore, having a utilization target is important. An
increase in latency is a good indicator of saturation; measuring
the <a href="https://medium.com/@ankur_anand/an-in-depth-introduction-to-99-percentile-for-programmers-22e83a00caf">99th
percentile</a>
of latency can help in the early detection of saturation.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Depending on the type of service, you can measure these signals in
different ways. For example, you might measure queries per second served
for a web server. In contrast, for a database server, transactions
performed and database sessions created give you an idea about the
traffic handled by the database server. With the help of additional code
logic (monitoring libraries and instrumentation), you can measure these
signals periodically and store them for future analysis. Although these
metrics give you an idea about the performance at the service end, you
need to also ensure that the same user experience is delivered at the
client end. Therefore, you might need to monitor the service from
outside the service infrastructure, which is discussed under third-party
monitoring.</p>
<h2 id="why-is-monitoring-important">Why is monitoring important?</h2>
<p>Monitoring plays a key role in the success of a service. As discussed
earlier, monitoring provides performance insights for understanding
service health. With access to historical data collected over time, you
can build intelligent applications to address specific needs. Some of
the key use cases follow:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Reduction in time to resolve issues</strong>&mdash;With a good monitoring
infrastructure in place, you can identify issues quickly and
resolve them, which reduces the impact caused by the issues.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Business decisions</strong>&mdash;Data collected over a period of time can
help you make business decisions such as determining the product
release cycle, which features to invest in, and geographical areas
to focus on. Decisions based on long-term data can improve the
overall product experience.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Resource planning</strong>&mdash;By analyzing historical data, you can
forecast service compute-resource demands, and you can properly
allocate resources. This allows financially effective decisions,
with no compromise in end-user experience.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Before we dive deeper into monitoring, let's understand some basic
terminologies.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Metric</strong>&mdash;A metric is a quantitative measure of a particular
system attribute&mdash;for example, memory or CPU</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Node or host</strong>&mdash;A physical server, virtual machine, or container
where an application is running</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>QPS</strong>&mdash;<em>Queries Per Second</em>, a measure of traffic served by the
service per second</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Latency</strong>&mdash;The time interval between user action and the
response from the server&mdash;for example, time spent after sending a
query to a database before the first response bit is received</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Error</strong> <strong>rate</strong>&mdash;Number of errors observed over a particular
time period (usually a second)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Graph</strong>&mdash;In monitoring, a graph is a representation of one or
more values of metrics collected over time</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Dashboard</strong>&mdash;A dashboard is a collection of graphs that provide
an overview of system health</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Incident</strong>&mdash;An incident is an event that disrupts the normal
operations of a system</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>MTTD</strong>&mdash;<em>Mean Time To Detect</em> is the time interval between the
beginning of a service failure and the detection of such failure</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>MTTR</strong>&mdash;Mean Time To Resolve is the time spent to fix a service
failure and bring the service back to its normal state</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Before we discuss monitoring an application, let us look at the
monitoring infrastructure. Following is an illustration of a basic
monitoring system.</p>
<p><img alt="Illustration of a monitoring infrastructure" src="../images/image1.jpg" /> </p>
<p align="center"> Figure 1: Illustration of a monitoring infrastructure </p>
<p>Figure 1 shows a monitoring infrastructure mechanism for aggregating
metrics on the system, and collecting and storing the data for display.
In addition, a monitoring infrastructure includes alert subsystems for
notifying concerned parties during any abnormal behavior. Let's look at
each of these infrastructure components:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Host metrics agent</strong>&mdash;A <em>host metrics agent</em> is a process
running on the host that collects performance statistics for host
subsystems such as memory, CPU, and network. These metrics are
regularly relayed to a metrics collector for storage and
visualization. Some examples are
<a href="https://collectd.org/">collectd</a>,
<a href="https://www.influxdata.com/time-series-platform/telegraf/">telegraf</a>,
and <a href="https://www.elastic.co/beats/metricbeat">metricbeat</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Metric aggregator</strong>&mdash;A <em>metric aggregator</em> is a process running
on the host. Applications running on the host collect service
metrics using
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_(computer_programming)">instrumentation</a>.
Collected metrics are sent either to the aggregator process or
directly to the metrics collector over API, if available. Received
metrics are aggregated periodically and relayed to the metrics
collector in batches. An example is
<a href="https://github.com/statsd/statsd">StatsD</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Metrics collector</strong>&mdash;A <em>metrics collector</em> process collects all
the metrics from the metric aggregators running on multiple hosts.
The collector takes care of decoding and stores this data on the
database. Metric collection and storage might be taken care of by
one single service such as
<a href="https://www.influxdata.com/">InfluxDB</a>, which we discuss
next. An example is <a href="https://graphite.readthedocs.io/en/latest/carbon-daemons.html">carbon
daemons</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Storage</strong>&mdash;A time-series database stores all of these metrics.
Examples are <a href="http://opentsdb.net/">OpenTSDB</a>,
<a href="https://graphite.readthedocs.io/en/stable/whisper.html">Whisper</a>,
and <a href="https://www.influxdata.com/">InfluxDB</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Metrics server</strong>&mdash;A <em>metrics server</em> can be as basic as a web
server that graphically renders metric data. In addition, the
metrics server provides aggregation functionalities and APIs for
fetching metric data programmatically. Some examples are
<a href="https://github.com/grafana/grafana">Grafana</a> and
<a href="https://github.com/graphite-project/graphite-web">Graphite-Web</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Alert manager</strong>&mdash;The <em>alert manager</em> regularly polls metric data
available and, if there are any anomalies detected, notifies you.
Each alert has a set of rules for identifying such anomalies.
Today many metrics servers such as
<a href="https://github.com/grafana/grafana">Grafana</a> support alert
management. We discuss alerting <a href="https://linkedin.github.io/school-of-sre/level101/metrics_and_monitoring/alerts/">in detail
later</a>. Examples are
<a href="https://github.com/grafana/grafana">Grafana</a> and
<a href="https://icinga.com/">Icinga</a>.</p>
</li>
</ul>
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